A technique used in OPERANT CONDITIONING which rewards any BEHAVIOUR that comes close to what is required, then gradually shapes the behaviour more exactly by reducing the area of rewarded behaviour.

A CULTURE which relies on shaming and ridiculing by others to regulate the BEHAVIOUR of a given individual and thus maintain order and social control. Such a culture is vulnerable to people not getting caught when breaking rules, if there is no internalised mechanism of self-regulation. Contrasted with GUILT CULTURE.

See ANTISOCIAL PERSONALITY

The term validity in logic (also logical validity) is largely synonymous with logical truth. However, the term is used in different contexts. Validity is a property of formulae, statements and arguments. A logically valid argument is one where the conclusion follows from the premises.

 Also seeCONSTRUCT VALIDITY.

Literally the ‘over I’ in Latin; according to FREUD one of the three main aspects of the PERSONALITY. Like the ID with which it is always in conflict, the superego is basically UNCONSCIOUS. It is the INTERNALISATION of restrictions on the impulses of the id. as reflected in the values and standards of BEHAVIOUR required by society in general and parents in particular. It is the equivalent of a conscience in a system of ethics.

An instrument for aiding PROGRAMMED LEARNING.

The simplest form of MAZE in the shape of a letter ‘T’

According to PIAGET. the first STAGE of cognitive development, from birth to about 2 years of age. During this stage the infant sees himself (or his SELF) as the centre of the world, but gradually comes to distinguish between SELF and others. The other important achievement of this stage is that of OBJECT PERMANENCE.

The study of society in general and social organisation in particular.

The experience of having sensations in a different MODALITY from the one being stimulated, e.g. ‘seeing’ music in colour.